Reading is importantly activity for individuals to engage in the development of academic competences, it is important for interpersonal functions. Reading also provides significantly input related to technological developments, world news, and scientific discoveries. Reading ability (literacy) in general is needed not only for access to printed resources such as books and journals but may also be needed for access to computers and the internet. Non-academic situation which require reading from those which involve interpreting direction on sign and product labels to those which involve receiving news from friends in letter or e-mail. Grab (1991) reviews research on academic reading in terms of five component abilities and type of knowledge that are involved in the activity:
(1)Vocabulary and structural knowledge. Fluent reading requires a large recognition vocabulary (some estimate range up to 100,000 words) and a sound knowledge of grammatical structure.
(2)Formal discourse structure knowledge. Good reader how a text is organized, including (culture-specific) logical pattern of organization for such contrasts cause-effect and problem-solution relations.
(3)Content/ world background knowledge. Good reader, have both more prior cultural knowledge about topic and more text related information than those who are less proficient.
(4)Synthesis and evaluation process/strategies. Fluent readers evaluated information in text and compare it with other sources of knowledge; they go beyond merely trying to comprehend what they read.
(5)Cognitive knowledge and comprehension monitoring. Fluent reader have (unconscious) knowledge about knowledge of language and about using appropriate strategies for understanding text and processing information. Monitoring involves both recognizing problems that occur in the process of interpreting information in a text, and awareness of non-comprehension. Grab (2002) lists the following functions for reading in academic setting (from least to most difficulty) they are:
(6)Reading to find information: scan or search text for specific topic, word, or phrase.
(7)Reading for general understanding: get the main ideas and at least some supporting ideas and information.
(8)Reading to learn: understand the main ideas and store the meanings and supporting details in a coherent organizational frame.
(1)Reading to critique and evaluate: in addition, reflect on text content, integrate it with prior knowledge and judge quality and appropriates of texts in relation to what is already known about topic. Even relative beginner can scan text for a specific topic or word, and intermediate learners can comprehend the main ideas, and get some supporting information, but reading to learn and critical/evaluative reading are generally achieved only at advance level (though knowledge of discourse/textual schemas, and common technical vocabulary can sometimes enable even a relative novice to gather useful information from a text in another language which utilizes a similar orthography).
Therefore, Leaner should read many kinds of reading in different difficulty level by reading a lot of different level in difficulty of word, the Learner will have more understanding of the meaning of word and their function in different context thus, reading is the practice of using text to be creating the meaning and act of linking one idea to another one, reading as well as the receptive process (taking in information). Reading help the students become better writer, trough reading students have incidental contact with the rules of grammar, student develop a sense for the structure of language and grammar increase their vocabulary. Reading is not only recognition of word but we how to think about passage, Therefore, reading involves meaning from the printed word, or understanding the meaning ( Pappas, 1970: 453) Explains that,’’ Reading is predominantly a visual thinking skill utilizing the eyes, and the higher mental process. It is the method by which perception of the printed symbols causes same form reaction in the mind”. Reading can be cassified into intensive reading and extensive reading ( rivers, 1969:227) On the other hand River explain : “intensive reading being related to further progress in language learning under the teacher guidance, Extensive reading developing at the students own pace to his individual ability”. For extensive reading, the activity is not completely controlled by the teacher, the students learn to read without the teacher rule, the extensive reading activity mostly concern with the purpose of training students to read directly, for his own enjoyment without the aid of teachers. Structures in the text will be all ready to him and the new vocabulary will be introduced in such ways that is meaning can be deduced from the context .In the same way, if the act of reading is linked to instruction that students find unpleasant or disagreeable, they will be less inclined to engage in future reading behavior. Keep your reading program simple. In all areas, uses a lot of big words, contains flashy graphs and pictures, has a detailed scope and sequence, includes an elaborate assessment plan, The effective literacy instructional devices ever invented are very simple things: good books, paper. The only other thing to add to this list is a teacher who understands children, learning, and literacy. Keep instruction simple. Good teachers make things seem as simple as possible. In this way they are like gymnasts. Gymnasts are able to perform and make them look simple. As teachers we want to be gymnasts, Make reading like- real life. Read for pleasure or to understand ideas and information. Write to organize the thoughts, to express ideas, and to convey important information to others. Never had to separate words into syllables; identify plot, conflict, and resolution in a story; describe an author’s purpose; identify diphthongs, diagraphs, initial clusters, medial clusters, and schwa sounds; identify CVC (consonant vowel- consonant) letter patterns; or find topic sentences in paragraphs. (By the way, if you examine paragraphs in newspapers, magazines, and books you’ll find that most of them don’t have topic sentences.) I have found no research to indicate that having children do these things improves their ability to read and process text or to express their ideas on paper. Once you have a book or a sample of graded reading, use the following steps to find approximate reading grade level:
1.Select a section that contains about fifty to one hundred words (for younger children, more for older children). 2. Have the student read orally (this is an individual assessment). 3. Note the words incorrectly identified by the student. 4. Determine reading level for that selection by calculating the percentage of words read correctly (divide the words read correctly by the total number of words): • Words correct divided by total words = reading level • Independent reading level = 98 to 100 percent accuracy • Instructional level = 90 to 97 percent accuracy • Frustration level = 89 percent or lower A score of 98 percent or higher would indicate students’ independent reading level. This is the level of books that you should encourage students to read for pleasure at home and at school. A score of 90–97 percent would be their instructional level. This is the level of books that should be used for reading instruction. Reading material at the frustration level should not be use Independent level. At this level the student can read unassisted. Students are generally able to read 98 percent or more of these words. You want to find books at this level for the student to use in pleasure reading or reading independently. Instruction level. At this level the student can read with some assistance. Students are generally able to read 90 to 97 percent of these words. This is the level of reading material you want to use for reading instruction. Here you will need to provide some assistance such as a story map, vocabulary help, or a story preview. Frustration level. At this level the student cannot be successful even with a lot of teacher help. Students are able to read less than 90 percent of these words. Avoid this level. Some people mistakenly think that challenging students will help them progress faster. Instead, you end up with frustrated learners who learn that they can’t learn to read.
A.Activites of the Reading
Schemitt (1990) States that reading Activity is divided into 3 (three) stages pre-reading, while Reading, and after Reading. The first, he suggests to make some questions related to the topic, the second, the reader should look for the answer (while reading) and the third, (after reading) a reader has to identified “is the questions answered well or not ? this strategy is very appropriate for all students to improve their knowledge about a specific theory. In reading activity there are skimming and scanning, first of all, a reader must be skimming the paragraph by paragraph, is this paragraph consist a lot of information which I am looking for? If there is no information is found a reader must read (skimming) another paragraph again, but opposite if a reader find the information at the paragraph She must scanning the paragraph in detail and record the information (Strategi Membaca Bahasa Inggris, 2002 : 76-86).
B. Techniques of Teaching Reading
Hummond (in garner at all, 1987 : 2) stated that there are five techniques assist compression in reading such as :
1.Provide to students with meaningful reading material.
2.Raise students interest on their exiting knowledge.
3.Establish for reading purpose.
4.Making use of “predictive” Question that ask the reader look for opportunities to ask the question that encourage students to make interferences.
5.Really less in teaching manuals, and more on your own teaching ability. Furthermore in a teaching Plan, Hammon has devolve A-I-R Structure to assist teaching reading. There are three-stage lesson plan consisting : Action-Interest-and Reflection.
The first, (action) the teacher motivates student to read and activates their interest in the materials by drawing on their interest Exciting knowledge of the subject matter and asking Question that Requre Students to predict. The second, (instruction) where the students read the materials. The third, (Reflection) in this step the students ask their selves, that is also the time for discussing of both content and process. Good readers approach reading actively. The first, we prepare before actually letting our eyes fall on the page. We reflect generally on the kind of material we are about to read. We think of the genre; perhaps something about the author has attracted us to the text. We begin to activate our own information and experiences connected to the text. In this generally very rapid pre-reading activity, we begin to form questions that will guide our reading: brief examples of the kinds of questions that come to us as we begin to read. The second general phase of reading occurs as we connect with the words and illustration is provided by the author. At this time, we are actively connecting ideas while reading and monitoring the meaning-making process. We connect ideas across sentences and paragraphs; we form images and predict where the author is taking us. We revise our ideas as we take in new information. When there is confusion, we may engage in ways of “fixing up” problems so that comprehension is ongoing. After reading, readers engage in reflection what have been read. We usually connect it to other texts, events, experiences in our own life. We reflect on the author’s point of view and compare it with other experiences we have had: Does this make sense? Are there other ways of describing, explaining, or interpreting this? In this process we summarize, reflect, and extend what we have read, making the act of reading our own and using what we have gained in a more global way. An active, constructive process characterizes most reading. However, specific strategies are particularly suited to specific materials and purposes. For example, reading for a course in which where there will be an examination of the depth of our mastery of the material we may need to employ strategies that deepen our understanding and memory. In some cases, visualizing what we read helps create a deeper understanding. In other cases, underlining with a pen or making notes in the margin or on a separate sheet of paper helps us sort out very dense texts and create a sense of the relatedness of different parts. If there are many characters in a novel, then keeping a chart of names, relationships and so on can deepen the reading. Rereading, note making, and rehearsing key ideas are just a few strategies for absorbing difficult content. Students need to know how and know when to use strategies that are most appropriate for particular tasks and materials. As teachers, we cannot simply define what our students already do well or what we like to teach. We need to have a clear sense of the range of strategies all readers should have at their disposal and to ensure that our students develop these. We need to begin with where our students are, and then to extend their strategic knowledge until they are competent with multiple types of texts and the various purposes for which we read. Later in this book, we describe in detail several very useful strategies students can develop to increase their effectiveness. These includes brainstorming and predicting before reading, visualizing, making maps and graphic organizers during reading, various forms of note making, writing two-column notes and double-entry journals. The number of ways to describe this active reading process is almost overwhelming, and most of us find some strategies we prefer over others to use in our teaching. What is most important that we share with students the nature of reading in multiple forms and purposes, and that we help them develop a repertoire of powerful strategies so reading is enjoyable and they comprehend successfully. The range of teaching strategies is great and is needed to motivate and interest the range of students in our classes. However, one could argue that reading strategies are also important for many adults who consider them to be skilled readers. There are three arguments to bolster this claim. First, many readers do not know whether they are adequately comprehending text. In research on comprehension calibration (Glenberg & Epstein, 1985; Maki, 1998), ratings are collected from readers on how well they believe and have comprehended texts. These ratings are correlated with objective tests of text comprehension. Acquisition of better reading strategies holds some promise in helping readers improve their comprehension calibration. Second, many readers have an illusion of comprehension when they read text because they settle for shallow levels of analysis as a criterion for adequate comprehension (Baker, 1985; Otero & Kintsch, 1992). Shallow readers believe they have adequately comprehended text if they can recognize the content words and understand most of the sentences. However, deep comprehension requires inferences, linking ideas coherently, scrutinizing the validity of claims with a critical stance, and sometimes understanding the motives of authors. Shallow readers believe they are comprehending text when in fact they are missing the majority of contradictions and false claims. Acquisition of better reading strategies is apparently needed to crack the illusion of comprehension in readers who are settling for low standards of comprehension. They need to acquire and implement strategies to facilitate deeper levels of comprehension.
C.Assessment of Reading Skill
A number of very different assessment techniques are commonly used to appraise the reading abilities of handicapped learners, standardized test is administrated in many cases, while information gathered from systematic observations and informal test also is used in planning appropriate instructional strategies. Nevertheless, in most cases we have found that the efficient measurement process employ a variety of appraisal techniques, including both formal and informal assessment.
E.Formal Reading Assessment
The formal assessment techniques in reading include specific directions for administering, scoring, and interpreting the result of the test. There are three types of formal assessment procedures in reading: (1) Diagnostic Test, (2), Word Recognition Test, and (3) Criterion-Referenced Test.
1.Diagnostic Reading Test
Diagnostic Reading Test usually consist of multiple subtest, each appraising a specific reading skill. According to Ramsey in Wallace, cohen, and polloay (1987), diagnostic reading test may be judged according to several of the following criteria, Reality refers to skills and concept being evaluated in a manner similar to their usage in actual reading. Guessing means that correct guessing should not be possible. Active describes the students who respond with over, observable behavior. Spesificity implies that success of failure on items should be attributable to only one ability. Comprehension suggests that questions on comprehension should require understanding, and interpretation rather that more recall of directly stated details.
2.Word Recognition Test
Graded word list, which estimate a student’s general reading level dealing with word knowledge are relatively recent addition to the broad array of reading assessment approach.
3.Criterion – Referenced Test
In Criterion – Referenced Testt, performance is evaluated in terms of absolute or specific ctiterion that has been set for the students without comparison to the performance of other students.
F.Informal Reading Assessment
The informal methods are widely used in appraising the reading skill of handicapped learners. Questioner is one of many informal assessment techniques are used in measuring various reading skills, for the most part, these techniques are utilized in appraising reading interest and attitudes in gathering data concerning word analysis, and reading comprehension skill.
BY:MUSLEH MAULANA
HP:085338736697
